• This essay attempts to study the rationalistic culture of Arthashastra in the light of Carvaka philosophy or Lokayata and how Kautilya blends the materialism of Carvaka with statecraft. 

The author is a research scholar from the University of Kerala.

Introduction

Arthashastra is a storehouse of knowledge in ancient India. It deals with the matters of administration and the concept of welfare state that was the ultimate aim of Arthashastra. The author Kauṭilya is known for being a practical statesman and the greatest Indian proponent of the art of government, duties of kings, ministers and other administrators. Arthashastra deals with the science of politics.

The purpose of Kautilya’s thoughts is ‘People’s welfare and protection’. The content of this ancient political treatise includes foreign, civil, military, judicial policies etc. This book prescribes not only state policies but also how a person should rule the state. For that reason, Kauṭilya is acclaimed as an eminent king -maker.

This work is considered as a guide book for rulers on how the administration of the kingdom should be carried on. The Arthashastra consists of fifteen adhikaraṇas. Of these, the first five chapters deal with internal administration, the next eight deal with avapa or its relations with neighboring states, while the last two chapters are mixed.

Arthashastra's ideas of administration, governance, and financial management are spoken about often. However, this essay attempts to study the rationalistic culture of Arthashastra.

India has a rich and prosperous philosophical traditions with its culture firmly grounded in these traditions. Therefore, Arthashastra can also be analyzed in the terms of how ancient rationalism remains relevant to modern times.

Indian Philosophy

Pandit Rajmani Tugnait wrote, “The Sanskrit word for philosophy is darsana, which means direct vision. The words symbolize the difference between modern Western philosophy, which mainly relies on an intellectual pursuit and Indian philosophy that relies on a direct vision of truth and pure Buddhi (reasoning). Self-realization, the direct experience of one's inner nature is the goal of all systems of Indian philosophy. Every system prescribed its own way of overcoming pain to achieve the ultimate goal. Thus, every human being has to look within, understand his own nature, and figure out his path to self-realization.”

Indian schools of philosophy are divided into Orthodox and Heterodox systems i.e. Āstika and Nastika. The former covers Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Pūrva mīmāṃsa and Uttara mīmāṃsa. The latter covers Cārvāka, Buddhist and Jaina. Read   Six Darsanas or Schools of Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy is a large movement that has grown by incorporating different viewpoints. It takes an introspective approach to reality, concerns itself with knowledge of the inner self rather than outward world. It includes the law of karma and rebirth. Except the cārvāka all darsana schools accept the moral order of the universe and justice as the law of moral life. Read  Characteristics of Indian Philosophy

There in we can see the philosophy of politics that which put forwarded by Kauṭilya in the Arthaśāstra.

What is Carvaka or Lokayata Philosophy

It is an aesthetic and materialistic school of thought. The derivation of the word Cārvāka- ‘cāru’ means the pleasant or sweet ‘vāk’ means speech. The derivation of the word Lokāyata – Loka means world and ‘āyata’means prevalent. Therefore, it means 'prevalence in the world’. Its followers believe that perception to be the only real knowledge i.e. Pramana, the only valid source of knowledge.

Most Indian philosophical systems accept moksh or self-realization as their goal.  The basic concepts of these philosophies are soul, karma and liberation. But, the Cārvākas do not accept the idea of soul, rebirth, salvation etc. They only accept perception and hold sensory gratification as the final objective of life.

Because of such a belief there were arguments between the materialistic and non- materialistic philosophers. According to Lokāyata thinkers the Vedas are not real, they are not the valid source of knowledge and the right source of information. The Cārvāka philosophers only consider pratyakṣa as the valid source of knowledge. They believed that direct sensory perception was the only source of knowledge. Nature, society, human beings are centered to the Pramana pratyakṣa.

They do not believe in the thoughts of the Āstika philosophers. Instead, pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain is the ultimate purpose of human existence. The foundational belief of Cārvākas is that only direct perception of anything was the only source of knowledge.

They rejected religious cosmology on the ground that there was simply no need for speculation on the universe. They did not believe in the existence of a creator and rejected the inference and the personal testimony. The noblest goal one could dedicate one’s self to in life was the pursuit of pleasure.

The philosophy of Lokayata in Arthashastra

The rational method of Lokāyata philosophy is found in Kautilya's Arthaśāstra. The treatise refers to three ānvīkṣikīs. The term Ānvīkṣikī means metaphysics. It is generally associated with the study of the inner soul. The ātmavidya or the inner soul is explained in the Arthaśāstra.

In the treatise, Kautilya quoted opinions of earlier scholars and finally concluded that Ānvīkṣikī along with trayi (3 Vedas), Varta and daṇḍanīti completes the branch of knowledge. Arthaśāstra is a treatise on statecraft that highlights the science of economics. But, this work is not only about economics, statecraft, it gives a complete idea about life and livelihood.

R.P. Kangle clearly mentioned the term Artha as ‘source of livelihood. So this work deals with all the socio- economic factors of the state. It covers the political, social, economic, philosophical systems. Kauṭilya discusses the three Anviksiki-Samkhya, Yoga and Lokayata. Among these three he gives importance to the rational approach of Lokayata Philosophy .While Samkhya and Yoga explain the realization of inner soul through conscious effort, Kautilya follows the practical and clear-cut methodology of Lokayata for understanding statecraft. (Kangle, 1965, Vol 1, 1.2.10).

Carvaka philosophers rejected the existence of any divine object. They believe that everything originates from the principal substance. According to them, life after death was just a baseless lie. They believe that there is no life after death. Death is the final goal and pleasure should be the ultimate goal of life.

However, Kautilya does not adopt this theory. He adopted only its logical and rational method of inquiry. Thus, the relevance of Lokayata or Carvaka in Arthasastra is methodological. 

Kautilya states that, “Ānvīkṣikī is the light of all other branches of knowledge.” Anviksiki provides guidance for self-development, self-discipline and moral conduct. A proper understanding of Ānvīkṣikī enables the ruler or the leader to understand the reality correctly and maintain ethics for welfare of the people. It helps to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong, called Viveka.

Kautilya’s ideas on statecraft and morals are very logical. He connected statecraft both politically and philosophically. Thus  philosophy in   Arthaśāstra is not limited to economics and politics, but extends to a reasoned approach to life and governance. It is very much essential for the ruler to handle everything in a logical and philosophical manner. This work is really a guidebook so it clearly indicates the importance of philosophy in a welfare state. Therefore, the three philosophies are comprehensive in nature.

The philosophy of Lokāyata is focused on Arthaśāstra.  The followers of Lokāyata have their own beliefs. Kauṭilya accepted the materialistic philosophy, adapted the ideology but amalgamated it statecraft. On the basis of Lokāyata philosophy Kauṭilya taught the ruler to not only think rationally but also act rationally. Lokāyata highlights the practicality.

Arthaśāstra is not limited to the study of economics and politics but expands to a reasoned, righteous (Dharma) approach to life in general. The connection of Lokāyata and Arthaśāstra is clear. The attainment of pleasure is the main aim of Lokayata philosophy. In Arthaśāstra ‘prajārañjan’ means to please the subjects is the ruler’s duty (rājadharma).

Kauṭilya mentions the necessity of Anviksiki. For attaining an honorable position, he includes Lokayata among the Anviksikis (Shamasastry, 1915). It gives information about worldly affairs. The idea of Anvikshikis is to identify what is good and bad from different aspects. It keeps the mind and soul of people in equilibrium and helps them remain steady in adversity and brings excellence in speech, actions and thought.

Therefore, it is an essential guideline for an administrator. Kauṭilya considers Anviksiki as the means of all actions, and the support of all dharma.  It is clear that the establishment of Anviksiki is necessary to   maintain the stability of the  king.

In Arthaśāstra, a philosophical touch is present even in the concept of statecraft and duties of a king. Kautilya explains this through the concept of indriyajaya (control over the senses). He states that the king who has not controlled his own senses cannot control his subjects. For this control over the senses, Kautilya prescribes a philosophical method of abandoning anger, greed, pride and arrogance. This is achieved through (viveka) logical discernment not ascetism.

Conclusion

Kautilya lists Samkhya, yoga and lokāyata under Anvikshiki, describing it as the lamp of all sciences, the means of all action and support of dharma. Among them he finds Lokayata desirable for its rationality and logical discernment.

Kauṭilya was attracted by lokāyata’s insistence on facing objective realities with courage to make worldly life happy. He held that a sense of reality is an essential quality of a king and could be integrated with Rajadharma. He was not an ardent follower of materialism; he selectively adopted its rational and empirical method and combined it with his own doctrines of statecraft.

Thus, by the Mauryan period, when materialist thought had spread among the elite, its inclusion in the Arthashastra was natural. Kautilya used it not as metaphysical creed but as a practical tool to develop human skills centered on the present world.

Śāmaśāstri notes that in the light of Anvīkṣikī, it is the most beneficial science in the world, as it steadies the mind in sorrow and pleasure providing foresight, eloquence and efficacy in action.  Kauṭilya includes Samkhya, Yoga and Lokayata under Anviksiki which he considers as the basis of knowledge and critical inquiry. As a treatise compiled from various sources on statecraft Arthaśāstra amalgamates these doctrines to emphasize logical reasoning. Among them, Lokayata provides the rational and empirical method essential for governance.

References

1. Kangle .R. P, The Kautiliya Arthasastra ,part 3, p 7.

2. Ibid, p.12

3. Shamasastry R: Kautilya’s Arthashastra, p.2.

Bibliography

1. Kangle.R P, The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, part 2, Motilal Banarsidass publishers, Delhi,1972.

2. Śāmaśāstry. R, Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra, Nation press, New Delhi, ISBN:978-93-87436-85-5.

3. Damodaran.K, Bhāratīyacintā,Kerala Bhasha Institute, Trivandrum,1973.

4. Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad: Lokayata; A new Study in Ancient Indian Materialism. New Delhi; People’s Publishing House, 1959.

Also read

1. Six Darsanas or Schools of Indian Philosophy

2. Characteristics of Indian Philosophy

3. Shad Darsanas – Six Views on Reality

4. Charvaka – The Materialist and Empiricist Philosophy of Hinduism