• Symbolism behind Dvarapalas, Epics Panels, Why Navagrahas, Mythical Creatures, Importance of Mithuna & Surasundari Imagery, Kirtikumha, Makara and Dikhpalas in temples. What is the significance of Lotus. Temples operated as a virtual classroom. To stand before a temple is thus to encounter history in embodied form.

Part 1 was Why Temples are Sacred Text in Stone. This is part 2.

Dvarapalas and Threshold Symbolism

Approaching the sanctum, one frequently encounters imposing figures standing guard at entrances. These are the dvarapalas—the guardians of sacred thresholds.

59 Dvarapalas at Jageshwar Shiv Mandir, Kumaon. Uttarakhand.

Often muscular and commanding, armed with clubs or weapons, dvarapalas initially appear as protectors against physical intrusion. Yet their significance extends far beyond guardianship in a literal sense.

Indian temple architecture treats entrances as liminal spaces—zones of transition between one realm and another. Crossing a temple threshold signifies movement from the profane world into sacred territory. The doorway therefore acquires immense symbolic importance. Dvarapalas embody this transition.

Their stern expressions and vigilant stance remind devotees that entry into sacred space requires mental preparedness and inner discipline. The temple is not to be entered casually. One must cross not only a physical doorway but also psychological and spiritual boundaries.

The symbolic role of threshold guardians appears across diverse temple traditions. In Shaiva temples, dvarapalas may appear fierce and powerful, reflecting the formidable energy associated with Shiva. Vaishnava temples similarly position guardians near sanctums, reinforcing divine sovereignty and sacred protection.

Beyond theological meaning, these figures also produce a psychological effect. Their presence heightens anticipation and reverence. The devotee becomes conscious of approaching a realm distinct from ordinary life.

Thus, the dvarapala is not simply a sculpted sentinel but a symbolic mediator between worlds.

Mithuna and Surasundari Imagery

Among the most visually captivating and frequently misunderstood aspects of temple sculpture are mithuna figures and surasundaris.

9 Mithuna figures, Khajuraho Temple.

Mithuna imagery depicts loving couples, while surasundaris—celestial maidens—appear dancing, adorning themselves, or engaged in graceful activities. Modern interpretations, especially those shaped by colonial morality or selective viewing, often reduce these sculptures to erotic art. Such readings, however, overlook their larger symbolic and architectural context.

In Indian sacred traditions, mithuna figures signify fertility, prosperity, and cosmic harmony. Their presence celebrates generative energy and the continuity of life. Rather than existing in opposition to spirituality, worldly existence forms part of a larger sacred order.

The union represented through mithuna imagery frequently symbolises complementary principles—male and female, matter and consciousness, earthly and divine. Such imagery reflects philosophical ideas of balance and creative power.

Similarly, surasundaris embody more than feminine beauty. Their graceful poses and refined ornamentation express ideals of auspiciousness, abundance, and aesthetic delight.

63 Patralekha Sundari, Art Gallery, City Palace, Udaipur.

69 Sundari, Belur Temple. Karnataka.   

Indian temple architecture acknowledges beauty as spiritually meaningful. The experience of sacred space engages not only devotion but also wonder, joy, and sensory refinement. Surasundaris contribute to this atmosphere, transforming architecture into a realm of celestial elegance.

Their sculpted forms frequently demonstrate extraordinary artistic sophistication—subtle movement, delicate gesture, and rhythmic composition that animate stone with life.

These sculptures therefore invite more nuanced interpretation. Far from being marginal decoration or purely sensual imagery, they participate in a philosophical understanding of existence in which creation, beauty, and sacredness are deeply interconnected.

Vyala/Yali and Mythical Creatures

Temples are inhabited not only by gods and humans but also by remarkable mythical creatures.

Among the most prominent are the vyala or yali—composite beings combining features of lions, elephants, horses, birds, and other animals. Particularly prominent in South Indian temples, these creatures embody the imaginative richness of temple iconography.

64 Vyala, Khajuraho.

65 Temple Hampi, Karnataka. Yali has an elephants trunk, aligators mouth, lion ka body, bulls eye.

The yali is a creature of paradox. Familiar yet fantastical, it belongs neither fully to the human world nor entirely to myth. This ambiguity gives it symbolic power.

Composite creatures represent energies that transcend ordinary categories. Their hybrid nature reflects the sacred imagination’s refusal to confine reality within rigid boundaries. They evoke untamed strength, unpredictability, and supernatural potency.

Architecturally, yalis frequently appear on pillars and entrances, where they perform protective functions. Their dramatic forms animate structural surfaces and reinforce the temple’s role as a guarded sacred domain.

Such beings also inhabit liminal zones—spaces of transition where the ordinary gives way to the extraordinary. Their presence reminds devotees that the temple is not merely a human environment but a cosmic landscape inhabited by forces beyond conventional understanding.

Temple iconography thus embraces imagination not as fantasy detached from truth but as a means of expressing realities that language alone cannot contain.

Makara, Kirtimukha and Protective Motifs

Among temple motifs, few are as enduring and symbolically rich as the makara and kirtimukha.

The makara, often appearing on gateways, arches, and water-related imagery, is an extraordinary aquatic creature composed of crocodilian, fish, elephantine, and serpentine elements. In mythology and art, it functions as both vehicle and guardian.

66 Halebidu Temple, left and right. Makara has body of a pig, mouth of a crocodile, trunk of an elephant, legs of a lion, eyes of a monkey and ears of a cow.

The makara embodies the mystery of primordial waters—the source of creation and transformation. Its hybrid nature links terrestrial and aquatic realms, suggesting cosmic fluidity and generative power.

Equally fascinating is the kirtimukha, the fierce devouring face commonly carved above temple doorways and niches. Also, found in Ranakpur Jain Temple.

56 Kirtimukha, Bodh Gaya Temple.

57 Kirtimukha Siddhanta Temple, Omkareshwar island, M.P.

58 Kirtimukha Jain Temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka.

According to tradition, the kirtimukha originated as a being whose insatiable hunger led it to consume its own body until only the face remained. Shiva then transformed it into a protective emblem.

This striking image became one of Indian architecture’s most recognisable motifs.

Far from grotesque ornament, the kirtimukha symbolises the devouring of ego, greed, and negativity. Positioned above sacred entrances, it functions as both guardian and warning.

These motifs reveal an important principle of temple iconography: protection is often expressed through ornament itself. Decoration becomes guardianship, and symbolism merges with architectural beauty.

Narrative Panels from Epics and Puranas

Temple walls are rarely silent surfaces. Across India, sculpted panels narrate episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranic traditions. These narrative programmes transform temples into repositories of sacred storytelling.

17 Chakravyuh. Halebidu Temple Karnataka.

52 Mahabharat panel, Kailasa Temple Ellora.

53 Relief showing Ravana cutting the wings of Jatayu bird. Kailasa Temple, Ellora.

55 Cave 29 Ellora. Siva and Parvati sitting on Mount Kailash with Ravana trying to shake the holy mountain.

The devotee circumambulating the shrine encounters not merely architecture but unfolding narrative worlds—Rama’s exile, Krishna’s exploits, scenes of devotion, heroism, and cosmic struggle.

These stories performed an essential pedagogic function.

In societies where literacy was limited, sculpture became public education. Through visual narratives, ethical ideals and theological concepts were communicated across social boundaries. The temple thus functioned as a visual library.

Its stories were not passive illustrations but living reminders of dharma, sacrifice, courage, and devotion. Through repeated viewing and ritual engagement, sacred memory was preserved across generations.

Stone became storytelling. And storytelling became a form of collective wisdom.

Dikpalas and Cosmological Guardians

Indian temples are never conceived as isolated structures occupying empty land. They are imagined as carefully ordered microcosms of the universe. This cosmological vision becomes visible through the presence of the Dikpalas—the guardians of directions.

Derived from dik (direction) and pala (protector), these divine figures govern the spatial order of the cosmos. Classical traditions generally recognise eight directional guardians: Indra of the east, Agni of the southeast, Yama of the south, Nirrti of the southwest, Varuna of the west, Vayu of the northwest, Kubera of the north, and Ishana of the northeast. Some traditions expand this arrangement to include zenith and nadir, creating a more comprehensive cosmic framework.

Their appearance in temple sculpture is not incidental ornamentation. The Dikpalas establish the temple as a cosmic mandala—a sacred diagram that reflects universal order.

19 Indra Temple, Sukumwit Street, Bangkok.

Positioned on outer walls, niches, or directional axes, these guardians reinforce the idea that sacred architecture exists in dialogue with the cosmos. Every direction carries symbolic qualities and divine associations. The temple therefore does not merely occupy space; it sanctifies and interprets it.

This reflects what may be called spatial theology.

The devotee standing within the temple occupies a carefully organised sacred universe where geography and divinity intersect. Orientation toward cardinal directions, ritual movement, and placement of iconographic elements all contribute to this cosmological understanding.

The Dikpalas remind us that temples are not only houses of gods but maps of sacred reality.

Navagraha Imagery and Cosmic Time

If the Dikpalas govern sacred space, the Navagrahas govern sacred time.

The nine planetary deities—Surya, Chandra, Mangala, Budha, Brihaspati, Shukra, Shani, Rahu, and Ketu—occupy an important place within temple iconography and ritual cosmology. Their presence reflects the Indian understanding that cosmic rhythms influence earthly existence.

20 Navagrahas around Eklingji temple, Udaipur. Art Gallery, City Palace.

The grahas are not simply astronomical bodies in the modern scientific sense. Within traditional cosmology they represent forces shaping time, destiny, temperament, and karmic experience.

Navagraha panels commonly appear near entrances, on lintels, or within designated shrines. Their placement is significant. Before approaching the principal deity, devotees symbolically acknowledge the cosmic powers governing worldly life.

The arrangement of these planetary figures conveys a profound philosophical insight.

Human life unfolds within time—subject to cycles, celestial movements, and karmic consequences. Yet temple worship offers a pathway toward harmony with these forces. The devotee does not seek escape from cosmic order but alignment with it.

28 Emblem of The House of Mewar displayed at City Palace, Udaipur.

29 Surya, Central India, sandstone-Matsuoka Museum of Art – Tokyo, Japan.

30 Surya, Sun Temple Konarak, Odisha.

Among these figures, Surya frequently occupies a central position, radiating vitality and cosmic authority. Shani, associated with discipline and karmic trials, inspires reverence and caution, while Rahu and Ketu, linked with eclipses and transformative energies, evoke mystery and unpredictability.

The Navagrahas therefore embody an Indian vision in which astronomy, ritual, and metaphysics are inseparable.

Through their presence, the temple becomes not only a sacred landscape but also a theatre of cosmic time.

Floral, Geometric and Lotus Symbolism

Not all temple iconography takes anthropomorphic form. Equally powerful are the floral and geometric motifs that cover ceilings, pillars, mouldings, and sanctified spaces.

Among these symbols, the lotus occupies unrivalled importance.  

21 Ranakpur Temple. Ceiling is geometric and floral design. Very common across regions Nagara, Dravida temples.

Emerging unsullied from muddy waters, the lotus represents purity, spiritual unfolding, and transcendence. Its symbolic resonance explains its pervasive presence beneath deities, upon ceilings, and within sacred diagrams.

The lotus expresses a philosophical ideal central to Indian thought—the possibility of remaining spiritually elevated while existing within the world.

Deeper significance of Lotus

The lotus (padma) holds a fundamental place in temple iconography, functioning beyond an ornamental motif and used as a symbol linking cosmology, creation, divinity and sacred architecture. Emerging pure from primordial waters and mud, it represents purity, transcendence and the emergence of ordered creation from undifferentiated matter. In Purāṇic cosmology, the lotus arising from Viṣṇu’s navel and bearing Brahmā signifies the unfolding of the universe. 

As the padmāsana, it serves as the divine seat of deities such as Brahmā, Lakṣmī and Sarasvatī, expressing their transcendence above worldly impurity, while as an attribute it conveys specific divine qualities such as preservation, prosperity and auspiciousness.

The lotus also moves from iconography into architecture, informing temple mouldings, ceilings, bases and spatial diagrams, making the flower a visual metaphor for the unfolding of the cosmos around a sacred centre. In this way, the lotus becomes a powerful bridge between the cosmic order, the divine image and the temple as a microcosm of the universe.

28 Lotus top left and right Ahmedabad monument.

Another recurring motif is the kalasha, the auspicious vessel associated with abundance, fertility, and fullness of life. Often appearing atop temple towers or within sculptural programmes, it signifies prosperity and sacred completion.

67 Kalash bottom of pic. Adalaj Vav Step-well near Amdavad, Gujarat.

Vegetal ornamentation—scrolls, vines, and floral arabesques—likewise carries symbolic meaning. These motifs evoke regeneration, growth, and the fecundity of nature. Their flowing patterns soften stone surfaces, transforming architecture into living sculpture.

Equally significant is sacred geometry. Temples are deeply informed by geometric principles derived from ritual diagrams and architectural treatises. Circles, squares, intersecting axes, and proportional systems create visual harmony while embodying cosmological order.

The mandala provides an especially important framework. More than decorative geometry, the mandala represents the organisation of sacred space and the interconnectedness of cosmic forces.

22 Surya Temple Modhera ceiling. Lotus Mandala.

These patterns reveal that temple ornament is never merely decorative.

Geometry becomes metaphysics, and ornament becomes philosophy.

The repetition and symmetry visible in temple design communicate order amid complexity, reminding devotees that beneath worldly multiplicity lies a deeper cosmic harmony.

Sacred Animals and Vāhanas

Animals occupy a vibrant and indispensable place in temple iconography.

Far from decorative additions, they function as symbolic beings and divine companions known as vāhanas—vehicles through which deities express particular qualities and powers.

Among the most recognisable is Nandi, the bull associated with Shiva. Positioned directly before the sanctum in Shaiva temples, Nandi embodies devotion, patience, strength, and disciplined energy. His unwavering gaze toward Shiva symbolises the ideal relationship between devotee and divine.

61 Nandi, Gangaikondacholapuram Temple, Tamil Nadu.

25 Nandi, Cambodia.  

Garuda, the eagle-like vāhana of Vishnu, represents speed, vigilance, and spiritual power triumphing over ignorance. His dynamic form conveys movement and celestial authority.

26 Garuda with Vishnu. Bangkok. 2009. Garuda at Trichy Temple is huge.

The lion, associated with Durga, signifies courage and sovereignty, while the mouse accompanying Ganesha communicates subtle intelligence and the capacity to navigate hidden spaces. Elephants, frequently carved upon gateways and bases, embody strength, fertility, and protective stability.

69 Elephant, Dilwara Jain Temple. Found in Kailasa Temple Ellora too.

68 Siddhanath Temple, Omkareshwar island, M.P.

38 Belur Temple, Karnataka. Lower level has rows of elephants.   

These relationships are not arbitrary.

The vāhana functions as a theological metaphor, revealing aspects of the deity’s nature and cosmic function. Through animal symbolism, complex philosophical ideas become visually accessible.

Temple animals therefore participate actively within sacred space. They guide interpretation, shape devotional experience, and reinforce theological meaning.

Their presence reflects a worldview in which humans, animals, and divinity coexist within an interconnected cosmic order.

Temple Sculpture as Symbolic and Pedagogic Language

To understand temple iconography fully, one must recognise that temple sculpture was never intended solely for aesthetic admiration.

It functioned as a pedagogic language.

For centuries, temples served as public institutions where religious ideas, ethical principles, historical memory, and cultural values were communicated through image and experience. In societies where literacy varied, sculpture became an accessible medium of instruction.

The temple thus operated as a visual classroom.

Narrative panels taught moral lessons through epic stories. Symbolic motifs conveyed cosmological concepts. Deities illustrated philosophical principles and spiritual ideals.

Instruction occurred not through formal teaching alone but through encounter.

The devotee learned while walking, observing, circumambulating, and participating in ritual. Sacred knowledge became experiential rather than merely textual.

This pedagogic role explains the richness and density of temple imagery. Sculptural programmes were designed to stimulate curiosity, contemplation, and emotional engagement.

Stone educated. Architecture narrated. And sacred space became a living repository of shared wisdom.

What is the importance of Water in Temples?

Water in the temple is understood as a sacred and elemental presence.

32 Ram Kund, Sun Temple Modhera, Gujarat.

37 Water tank, Sravanabelgola, Karnataka.

69 Samudra Manthan, Kiradu Temples Barmer, Rajasthan.  

At the cosmological level, the primordial Garbhodaka Ocean represents the undifferentiated waters from which form and creation emerge; this is manifested architecturally. As Āpas/Jala, it represents liquidity, cohesion, fertility, nourishment and flow, and serves as a medium of purification, consecration and ritual blessing.

Within the temple, these qualities are expressed through tanks, ablution spaces, sacred water sources and ritual channels, bringing the cosmic principle of water into the lived experience of the sacred environment.

Motifs Beyond Dynasty, Region and Religion

One of the most remarkable aspects of Indian temple iconography is its extraordinary continuity across dynasties, regions, and religious traditions.

Whether one studies the early Chalukya temples of Deccan landscapes, the monumental Chola temples of Tamil country, the sculptural exuberance of Chandella architecture, the intricacy of Hoysala shrines, the elegance of Solanki monuments in western India, or richly ornamented Jain temples, certain symbolic motifs persist.

Lotus forms, guardian figures, mythical creatures, sacred animals, celestial imagery, and narrative sculpture recur across vast geographical and chronological distances.

Stylistic differences undoubtedly exist.

A Hoysala carving differs dramatically from Chola sculpture in texture and detail.

Solanki ornament possesses distinct regional elegance, while Chandella temples display their own sculptural dynamism.

Yet beneath stylistic variation lies remarkable iconographic continuity.

This persistence suggests that temple traditions were sustained not merely by political patronage but by a shared civilisational imagination.

Dynasties rose and declined. Kingdoms shifted and sectarian identities evolved. But the symbolic language of temples endured.

Iconography thus transcended geography and politics, creating a sacred continuity that connected communities across centuries.

Picture designs not covered above.

33/30 Gawaksha windows carved from stone in a geometric pattern. This is also called Jallwatayana. Mandu, M.P.

34/31 Ceiling is geometric and floral design. Very common across regions Nagara, Dravida temples.

35 Geometric pattern of snakes is very common on columns or as grill design on windows of temples.

36 Hindu style brackets, Mandu.

37 Hall supported by numerous columns, Ajmer. See ceiling design.

70 Ruins of panel in Ashrafi Mahal has flower design, Mandu. M.P.

71 Decorated Column, Kailasa Temple Ellora. Last row is Kirtimukha.

Conclusion: Temples as Repositories of Civilisational Memory

Temples endure because they preserve more than architecture. They preserve memory.

Within their sculpted surfaces reside philosophies, myths, aesthetic ideals, ritual practices, and collective aspirations accumulated across generations. Every carved figure and symbolic motif becomes part of a larger archive of civilisation.

The temple therefore functions as a repository of cultural consciousness.

Its stones remember what societies valued, feared, celebrated, and believed. They preserve not only theological doctrines but ways of seeing the world.

To stand before a temple is thus to encounter history in embodied form.

Its iconography reminds us that Indian civilisation did not separate art from philosophy, architecture from spirituality, or beauty from meaning. Instead, it fused them into an integrated language of sacred expression.

Today, when temples are often reduced to archaeological sites or tourist landmarks, recovering this symbolic literacy becomes increasingly important.

To understand iconography is not merely to identify sculptures or catalogue motifs. It is to recover the intellectual and spiritual imagination that transformed stone into wisdom.

The temples of India and the wider Indic world continue to speak.

Their language is ancient, yet profoundly relevant—a language of symbols, memory, and meaning that invites us to look beyond surface appearances and rediscover sacred architecture as a living archive of civilisation itself.

To read Part 1 Why Temples are Sacred Text in Stone and Part 3 What is common to Hindu and Jain Temples 

To read all articles by author

The author is a Conservationist, Architectural historian, Author, Ph. D. in Dravidian and Khmer temple Architecture, Cambodia and the Founder of Samrachanā - Heritage Conservation & Research Initiative, Pune. 

Also read

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2. Appreciating Indian Temple Architecture - An Indian viewpoint

3. How did Hindu Temples evolve

4. Why do Temples have Tanks and Stepwells

5. What do Ganas, Gandharvas, Mithuna Couples and Dancing girls on Temple Walls tell us